To investigate the historical trajectory of migration and mobility within the Ukraine region, with a specific emphasis on migrating populations during the Iron Age and the Medieval eras, researchers meticulously generated genomic data from 91 individuals whose lives spanned from approximately 7000 BCE to 1800 CE. The resultant analysis revealed that the ancient populace exhibited a wide spectrum of ancestral origins, attributable to recurrent population movements, integration, and interactions.
A cartographical representation of the geographical distribution of the ancient study subjects and a chronological depiction of their archaeological groupings. Image attribution: Saag et al., doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adr0695.
For extended periods, the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Ukraine served as conduits for extensive population movements in multiple directions.
These migratory phenomena were precipitated by a confluence of factors, encompassing inter-tribal cultural engagements and hostilities, commercial exchanges, demographic pressures, and the expansion of nomadic spheres of influence, among others.
Significant migratory currents originated from the Carpathian-Danubian basin, the Southern Urals and Volga territories, Central Asia, and the North Caucasus, while intense inter-regional population shifts also transpired within Ukraine’s borders.
The latter stages of the Bronze Age and the nascent phase of the Early Iron Age witnessed particularly conspicuous archaeological activities in the North Pontic steppes, which have been linked to the Cimmerians and their martial expeditions into Asia Minor.
Following the Cimmerians, the Scythians and Sarmatians emerged as prominent Early Iron Age political and military confederations. Prior ancient DNA (aDNA) studies have indicated that these groups comprised variable admixtures of indigenous and East Asian genetic elements. Concurrently, the northern Black Sea littoral was dotted with a network of settled Greek colonial centers.
Within the forest-steppe biome, contemporaneous settled communities were associated with the preceding Tshinets Cultural Circle (encompassing the Lusatian and Vysotska cultures), as well as with Central European influences from the Hallstatt and Early La Tène periods, involving groups such as the Illyrians, Thracians, and Celts.
Evidence from historical chronicles and archaeological findings suggests that populations regarded as precursors to the Slavs, identified with the Zarubintsy culture, had established a presence in the Ukraine region during the Late La Tène and Roman eras, commencing from the 3rd century BCE onwards.
The onset of the Migration Period in Ukraine is commonly attributed to the arrival of Germanic peoples, including the Goths, and the subsequent formation of the multifaceted Chernyakhiv culture, which incorporated other existing regional populations.
Between the 2nd and 4th centuries CE, the Huns, a nomadic populace originating from Central Asia, appeared in the North Pontic steppe, and their westward migratory surge precipitated significant transformations in Europe’s economic, cultural, and social landscapes.
This epoch is historically correlated with the emergence of a distinct ethnolinguistic entity, the Slavs, whose dispersal across a substantial portion of Eastern Europe occurred between the 5th and 7th centuries CE.
From the 8th to the 10th centuries CE, a considerable segment of Ukraine fell under the dominion of the Khazar Khaganate.
In Ukrainian archaeological discourse, this era is represented by the Saltiv culture, a cultural complex believed to have been shared across a diverse array of ethnic groups, including Alans, Bulgars, Turks, Slavs, and Magyars.
Coinciding with this period, a process of consolidation among Slavic tribes was underway, culminating in the establishment of the state of Kyivan Rus during the 9th century CE.
The development of Slavic statehood unfolded against a backdrop of continuous incursions by nomadic forces from the east.
Between the 11th and 13th centuries CE, successive waves of Pechenegs, Torques, and Cumans entered the North Pontic region from Central Asia. The most impactful invasion, in terms of military might and lasting consequences, was that of the Mongols of the Golden Horde in the 13th century CE.
By the 15th century CE, residual populations associated with the Golden Horde, such as the Nogai, continued to inhabit the North Pontic steppes.
From the 16th century CE onwards, Slavic peoples became the predominant ethnolinguistic group within the Ukraine region.
“Our objective was to investigate the genetic ancestries of individuals residing in the North Pontic region across these historical epochs and their affiliations with various cultural assemblages,” stated Dr. Lehti Saag, the study’s lead author, a researcher affiliated with the University of Tartu and University College London, and her colleagues.
For the purposes of this investigation, the research team extracted and sequenced genetic material from the tooth roots and skeletal fragments of 91 individuals recovered from 33 archaeological excavation sites within present-day Ukraine.
The analyzed remains included one individual from the Neolithic period (7000 to 6000 BCE), nine individuals spanning the Bronze Age and the transition from the Late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age (3000 to 700 BCE), six individuals from the early phase of the Early Iron Age (900 to 700 BCE), twenty-nine individuals from the Scythian period of the Early Iron Age (700 to 300 BCE), six individuals from the concluding phase of the Early Iron Age (400 to 1 BCE), twelve individuals from the later Iron Age (1 to 400 CE), nine individuals from the Early Middle Ages (800 to 900 CE), and nineteen individuals from the Medieval to the early modern period (900 to 1800 CE).
The comprehensive DNA analysis indicated that the ancient inhabitants possessed a diverse array of ancestral origins, a consequence of pervasive population movements, assimilation processes, and sustained interactions.
“From the Mesolithic period up to the era of the Vysotska and Bilozerska cultures at the close of the Bronze Age, the broad patterns of ancestral proportions mirrored those of contemporary European populations—initially comprising hunter-gatherers, followed by early agriculturalists, and finally a blend of early farmers and Steppe pastoralists,” the researchers reported.
“Commencing around the Cimmerian period and extending through the Middle Ages, the influx of eastern nomadic groups into the Pontic region became a recurring event.”
“Their genetic profiles exhibited variability, ranging from Yamna-like ancestry superimposed on local substrates, as observed in Scythians and Cumans, to pronounced East Asian genetic components with minimal indigenous admixture, as seen in the Alans-Bulgars and Nogai.”
“During this historical span, nomadic populations were documented in the steppe territories, whereas individuals from other parts of the Ukrainian region predominantly exhibited European ancestry, linked to local ancestral groups, as well as Thracians, Greeks, and Goths, among others.”
“The intricate historical tapestry of migration and population intermingling in the Ukraine region has likely contributed to a high degree of genetic heterogeneity within geographically, culturally, and socially cohesive groupings, with distinct genetic profiles identified at the same locale, during the same temporal interval, and among individuals sharing similar archaeological associations,” they elaborated.
“It is pertinent to emphasize that our research primarily focuses on historically documented migrating groups rather than predominantly local populations, and the sampling is geographically biased, concentrating largely on the eastern territories of Ukraine and temporally skewed towards the Iron Age and the Medieval periods.”
“Nevertheless, the fundamental local genetic signature, which bears resemblance to modern Ukrainians, has maintained its presence in the region across different timeframes, even within this curated sample set.”
“This ancestral composition can be traced back at least to individuals from the Zrubna culture and is observable among the inhabitants of the Vysotska and Lusatian cultures, Scythians from the west, contemporary agriculturalists from the east, the Chernyakhiv population, as well as Medieval and early modern Slavic peoples.”
“Irrespective of the clear evidence of significant migratory activity, including from East Asia, and extensive genetic admixture, we posit the existence of a substantial autochthonous component within Ukrainian ancestry, dating back at least to the Bronze Age.”
The research outcomes are published this week in the scientific journal Science Advances.
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Lehti Saag et al. 2025. North Pontic crossroads: Mobility in Ukraine from the Bronze Age to the early modern period. Science Advances 11 (2); doi: 10.1126/sciadv.adr0695
