This parchment, penned in Greek, constitutes a legal brief prepared for a judicial proceeding presided over by a Roman magistrate in the Roman provinces of Judea or Arabia. The proceedings took place subsequent to Emperor Hadrian’s regional sojourn in 129/130 CE and preceding the commencement of the Bar Kokhba Revolt in 132 CE. Within this document, an informal record of the hearing is preserved, addressing the prosecution of several individuals, notably including one Gadalias and Saulos. They stand accused of fabricating legal instruments pertaining to the conveyance and liberation of enslaved persons, with the apparent aim of evading the imperial treasury, known as the fiscus.
The 1,900-year-old Papyrus Cotton. Image credit: Shai Halevi.
The artifact in question was unearthed during the 1950s from one of the cavernous recesses within Nahal Hever, situated in the Judean Desert.
This manuscript, initially erroneously cataloged as Nabatean in origin, remained unexamined until its subsequent discovery in 2014 by Professor Hannah Cotton Paltiel of Hebrew University.
Now referred to as Papyrus Cotton, this papyrus extends to over 133 lines, establishing it as the most extensive Greek manuscript recovered from the Judean Desert to date.
Professor Cotton Paltiel, in collaboration with her academic peers from the Austrian Academy of Sciences, the University of Vienna, and Hebrew University, has ascertained that the document comprises annotations by prosecutors during preparations for a trial before Roman authorities, occurring on the precipice of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE). It also contains a hastily composed transcription of the judicial proceeding itself.
The prose is remarkably vivid and direct, featuring exchanges where one prosecuting counsel offers guidance to another regarding the probative value of select evidentiary items and devises strategies to preempt anticipated objections.
“The exceptional nature of this papyrus lies in its provision of unparalleled, direct insight into the intricacies of trial preparation within this specific region of the Roman Empire,” remarked Dr. Anna Dolganov of the Austrian Academy of Sciences.
“Apart from the legal proceedings involving Jesus, this represents the most thoroughly documented Roman judicial case originating from Judea,” commented Dr. Avner Ecker from Hebrew University.
The papyrus meticulously details a legal dispute encompassing allegations of document forgery, fiscal evasion, and the fraudulent alienation and enfranchisement of enslaved individuals within the Roman territories of Judea and Arabia, areas broadly corresponding to contemporary Israel and Jordan.
The principal respondents, Gadalias and Saulos, are implicated in alleged fraudulent transactions.
Gadalias, identified as the offspring of a notary and potentially a Roman citizen, possessed a criminal record that included acts of violence, coercive demands, counterfeiting, and instigation of sedition.
Saulos, his confederate, was instrumental in organizing sham transactions for the sale and liberation of slaves, thereby evading the mandated Roman taxation.
To obfuscate their illicit activities, the accused parties resorted to the creation of spurious documents.
“Under Roman jurisprudence, the offenses of forgery and tax fraud carried exceptionally stringent sanctions, potentially including forced labor or even the death penalty,” stated Dr. Dolganov.
This criminal prosecution transpired between two significant Judean revolts against Roman dominion: the Jewish Diaspora Revolt (115-117 CE) and the Bar Kokhba Revolt (132-136 CE).
Significantly, the extant text implicates Gadalias and Saulos in acts of insurrection during Emperor Hadrian’s visit to the region (129/130 CE) and specifically names Tineius Rufus, the procurator of Judea at the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba Rebellion.
In the context of prior civil disturbances, the Roman authorities likely regarded the defendants with profound suspicion, associating their transgressions with larger conspiracies targeting the empire.
“While their direct involvement in seditious activities remains a subject of conjecture, the insinuations present within the text underscore the intensely charged political climate of that era,” Dr. Dolganov observed.
“The very nature of the alleged crime prompts inquiry, as the liberation of enslaved individuals does not inherently present a lucrative commercial enterprise,” Dr. Ecker posited.
“The origins of the enslaved individuals involved remain indistinct, yet the case may pertain to clandestine human trafficking or the fulfillment of a Jewish scriptural obligation to ransom enslaved coreligionists.”
This papyrus offers novel perspectives on the application of Roman legal principles within the Hellenistic eastern reaches of the empire, referencing the governor of Judea’s circuit court duties and the compulsory participation of citizens in jury service.
“This inscribed artifact demonstrates that fundamental Roman administrative structures, well-documented in Egypt, were also actively implemented across the broader imperial expanse,” Professor Mitthof commented.
“Furthermore, the papyrus illustrates the Roman state’s capacity for oversight and regulation of private commercial dealings, even in distant geographical outposts.”
“Presumed to have been secreted away in a Judean Desert refuge during the Bar Kokhba Revolt, the reasons for its meticulous preservation remain enigmatic, and it is plausible that the culmination of the trial was disrupted by the ensuing rebellion.”
The scholarly findings of the research team have been disseminated in an academic publication within the journal Tyche via the provided link.
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Anna Dolganov et al. 2025. Forgery and Fiscal Fraud in Iudaea and Arabia on the Eve of the Bar Kokhba Revolt: Memorandum and Minutes of a Trial before a Roman Official (P.Cotton). Tyche 38; doi: 10.25365/tyche-2023-38-5
