Ochre mining operations, believed to be the most ancient on Earth, have been identified by archaeological experts in Lion Cavern, located in Ngwenya, Eswatini. These extensive mining activities are estimated to date back at least 48,000 years.
Selected hand specimens of samples from sources included in the study: Ngwenya high grade (A-C), Ngwenya low grade (D-F), Kubuta (G), Bulembu (H-J), Lupholo Dam (K, L), Mnyongane (M, N), Maloma (O). Scale bar – 1 cm. Image credit: MacDonald et al., doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-53050-6.
Ochre, a mineral earth known for its red, yellow, or violet hues, and sometimes confused with manganese oxide (black ochre), has played an undeniably crucial role throughout human history.
It is preserved in the deep chronicles of time, was quarried through sophisticated mining techniques, transported across vast distances, employed in symbolic gestures and funerary rites, and processed to enhance its attributes and efficacy in intricate pigment formulations.
This substance continues to hold significant cultural importance for numerous descendant communities in the present day.
However, the distinctions between various types of ochre are not always readily apparent, and pigments that may appear similar in color and texture often possess divergent physicochemical characteristics.
“We can assert that ochre represents the earliest known coloring agent utilized by humanity to visually represent our world,” stated Dr. Gregor Bader, an archaeological researcher affiliated with the Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment at the University of Tübingen.
“Our species, along with other hominins, has been employing this red, yellow, or occasionally purple mineral earth for a minimum of 500,000 years, and potentially even longer periods.”
In an extensive investigation of ochre utilization in Africa, Dr. Bader and his research associates examined its application south of the Sahara.
By analyzing 173 samples sourced from 15 Stone Age archaeological sites, the researchers were able to reconstruct regional patterns of mineral selection, extraction, conveyance, and ochre application.
“Our focus was on the entire spectrum of ochre processing: from identifying and selecting the mineral from diverse geological formations, its extraction, the combination with other materials such as milk, fat, blood, and plant resins acting as binders, to its subsequent transport to the archaeological locations,” explained Dr. Bader.
“How was the specialized knowledge of ochre extraction transmitted? Was there intergroup exchange among different hunter-gatherer societies? Were there regional or generational variations?”
The findings indicate the existence of both localized methods for obtaining ochre and extensive long-distance transport of this vital mineral through an established network linking various mineral deposits.
The archaeometric analyses conducted at 15 sites suggest a sustained cultural continuity in the intergenerational transfer of knowledge pertaining to ochre extraction and application, encompassing an understanding of geological formations and the desired physicochemical properties of mineral pigments.
These integrated communities of practice did not flourish in isolation; rather, they were integral components of a wider relational framework shaped and facilitated by social engagements such as the acquisition of technological skills, seasonal nomadic movements, the exchange of material artifacts, and symbolic expressions.
“Our data lend credence to the hypothesis that during the Stone Age, hunter-gatherers in Eswatini exhibited considerable mobility and occasionally traversed significant distances to transport ochre pigments,” Dr. Bader commented.
“It is noteworthy that such traditions persist in Eswatini into the present era. Ethnographic accounts, for instance, document plant healers journeying to procure mineral earth pigments for use in artistic and therapeutic ceremonies.”
“Ochre is also regarded as a significant element in marital ceremonies; on the morning of the wedding, the bride is adorned with red ochre and animal fat to signify her altered social standing within the community.”
“Our present research compellingly demonstrates that researchers from Eswatini are at the forefront of investigations into Stone Age ochre resources, and that the country possesses an extraordinary abundance of this crucial pigment.”
“In addition to elucidating the ochre exchange network, we employed optically stimulated luminescence dating techniques to corroborate that Lion Cavern in Ngwenya represents the world’s oldest identified evidence of intensive ochre mining, with an age of approximately 48,000 years.”
“Furthermore, this site provides some of the earliest indications of human intervention in actively modifying their environmental surroundings.”
The results of this study have been published in the scientific journal, Nature Communications.
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B.L. MacDonald et al. 2024. Ochre communities of practice in Stone Age Eswatini. Nat Commun 15, 9201; doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-53050-6
